Eunuchs of Ancient China

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The earliest records for intentional castration to produce eunuchs are from the Sumerian city of Lagash in the twenty first century BC. Over the millennia since, they have performed a wide variety of functions in many different cultures such as courtiers or equivalent domestics, treble singers, religious specialists, government officials, military commanders, and guardians of women or harem servants. In some translations of ancient texts, individuals identified as eunuchs seem to include men who were impotent with women, those we would now call transgender or homosexual, and those who were simply celibate.

Origin

The English word eunuch is from the Greek eune ("bed") and ekhein ("to keep"), effectively "bed keeper." Servants or slaves were usually castrated in order to make them safer, and servants of a royal court where physical access to the ruler could wield great influence. Seemingly lower domestic functions such as making the bed of ruler, bathing him, cutting his hair, carrying him in his litter or even relaying messages could in theory give a eunuch a title of "the ruler's ear" and impart actual power to the formally humble but trusted servant.

Eunuchs supposedly did not generally have loyalties to the military, the aristocracy, or to a family of their own (having neither offspring nor in-laws, at the very least), and were seen as more trustworthy and less interested in establishing a private "dynasty." Because their condition usually lowered their social status, they could also be easily replaced or killed without repercussion. In cultures that had both harems and eunuchs, eunuchs were sometimes used as harem servants (compare the female odalisque) or seraglio guards.

History

In ancient China castration was both a traditional punishment (until the Sui Dynasty) and a means of gaining employment in the Imperial service. At the end of the Ming Dynasty there were about 70,000 eunuchs employed by the emperor, of whom only a relative few served inside the Imperial palace. Certain eunuchs gained immense power that occasionally superseded that of prime ministers. Self-castration was commonplace and half-hearted attempts were sometimes made to make it illegal. The number of eunuchs in Imperial employ had fallen to 470 in 1912, when the practice of using them ceased.

It is said that the justification of the employment of eunuchs as high-ranking civil servants was that, since they were incapable of having children, they would not be tempted to seize power and start a dynasty. However, in many cases they were considered more reliable than the scholar officials. A similar system existed in Vietnam.

The tension between eunuchs in the service of the emperor and virtuous Confucian officials is a familiar theme in Chinese history. In his History of Government, Samuel Finer points out that reality was not always that clear-cut. There were instances of very capable eunuchs, who were valuable advisors to their emperor, and the resistance of the "virtuous" officials often stemmed from jealousy on their part. Ray Huang argues that in reality, eunuchs represented the personal will of the Emperor, while the officials represented the alternate political will of the bureaucracy. The clash between them would thus have been a clash of ideologies or political agenda.

Historically significant eunuchs

There are several famous Chinese Eunuchs such as Cai Lun, Zheng He, Sima Qian, An Dehai and Li Lianying. Not all eunuchs gained a reputation for being corrupt and evil such as Cai Lun, Zheng He, Sima Qian. Cai Lun, lived around A.D. 105, was conventionally regarded as the inventor of paper. Zheng He was a famous Chinese mariner and explorer, made the voyages collectively referred to as the "Zheng He's Exploration of Discovery," from 1405 to 1433. Sima Qian was a well respected chronicler and bureaucrat of ancient China.

Here list the top 10 euncuhs in Chinese history:

Zhao Gao, Qin Dynasty

In the year A.D. 210, China's first emperor Qingshihuang died of illness in Shaqiu. Eunuch Zhao Gao colluded with Li Si, premier of Qinshihuang, and killed Prince Fu Su and General Meng Tian. They helped Hu Hai gain power. After that, he brutally killed those who held opposing views and also killed his former ally Li Si. Still later he killed Hu Hai; after that the Qin Dynasty fell into chaos.

Zhang Rang, Eastern Han Dynasty

In the later years of the Eastern Han Dynasty, a group of eunuchs, headed by Zhang Rang, dominated the Court. Emperor Ling of the Han called Zhang Rang "father." Zhang and his eunuch always made up various false charges and killed officials along with those holding different views. Their actions finally led to serious disturbances in the later years of the Eastern Han Dynasty.

Liu Teng, Northern Wei Dynasty

Liu Teng came into power by betraying others. Through astute flattery he pleased the Empress Dowager Hu but later on, he murdered her lover, the then prime minister Yuan Yi. At sixty Liu Teng died of illness. After his death, the Empress Dowager Hu regained power. In fury she ordered Liu's corpse to be exhumed from his grave and thrown into the wildness. She also commanded that all of his 40 and more adopted sons be put to death.

Gao Lishi, Tang Dynasty

Gao was one of the most powerful eunuchs during the Tang Dynasty. He planned and helped Li Longji to kill former Empress Wei and Princess Tai Ping and became the most loyal follower of Emperor Ming during the Tang Dynasty. Gao contributed much to the flourishing period in early Tang Dynasty, hence Gao is considered "conspicuous" among all the eunuchs in ancient China.

Li Fuguo, Tang Dynasty

Li was smart, good at flattering but also very brutal. He flattered the prince, premier, empress and emperor, but when he thought they had no further use to him again, he would kill any of them mercilessly. Eventually, he was torn apart limb from limb and thrown into the wilderness.

Tong Guan, Northern Song Dynasty

After Emperor Huizong acceded to the throne, Tong Guan used everything in his bag of tricks to flatter the emperor and rose quickly. He colluded with Cai Jing to push out other officials in the Court; he appointed their families and friends as officials in different government departments. Tong controlled the military for twenty years, lost many battles with Liao and Jin armies. But the failures didn't cause him to lose any control over the military.

Zheng He, Ming Dynasty

Zheng He was originally surnamed Ma, and later was known as San Bao (Three Treasures). He was a native of Yunnan Province. During the period of the reign of Emperor Chengzu he was castrated and became a eunuch. He was given the surname Zheng by the emperor. He commanded the Ming Dynasty's fleet of immense trading vessels on expeditions C ranging from South Asia, India and Persia, all the way to east Africa. His expeditions are famous even today, and are recognized as great events during the early Ming Dynasty.

Liu Jin, Ming Dynasty

Liu was one of the most famous eunuchs in China's history. He served Prince Zhu Houzhao when the Prince was young. After the Prince acceded to the throne, he was promoted quickly to become the leading eunuch in the Court. In place of the Emperor, he replied to memorials to the throne and pushed out 56 upright officials. His corruption drove the Ming Dynasty from bad to worse.

Wei Zhongxian, Ming Dynasty

Wei was a former hoodlum and illiterate, but he was highly skilled at the art of flattery. Shortly after he was allowed into the royal palace, Wei was promoted by the eunuch Wang An, giving him the chance to get close to the Emperor Wanli. He maintained an intimate relationship with the nanny of the emperor's grandson Zhu Youjiao, who later became Emperor Xizong. After Zhu Youjiao acceded to the throne, Wei seized power and killed Wang An; he also jailed many innocent people. He led the monarchy manipulated by eunuchs to the peak.

Li Lianying, Qing Dynasty

Li Lianying spent 52 years in the royal palace. He was the most favored servant of the Empress Dowager Cixi. Li was the highest ranked, most powerful, and richest eunuch with the longest tenure of service throughout the Qing Dynasty. Both his servility to his master and his brutality over other officials were unsurpassable. Li interfered with all state affairs. Officials in and out of the palace scurried to curry his favor.

Eunuchs of Ancient China Highlights

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Eunuchs of Ancient China FAQ & Travelers's Tips

1. Who are the Chinese?
2. Is there any religion that was originated from China?
3. What do religious Chinese people believe in nowadays?
4. What is the policy of China to Ethnic Groups?
5. What was the most powerful spiritual statement a person in ancient china could make?
6. Why China is called one of the Four Great Ancient Civilizations?
7. How to understand the insight of Buddhism?
8. What determines an ethnic group?
9. Where did the names of ethnic groups come from?

1. Who are the Chinese?

   The people of China have always been a diverse group. Beginning in 221 B.C.E. the ethnic groups of China were first unified under the Qin Dynasty. This short-lived dynasty was followed by one of the longest, the Han Dynasty (206 B.C.E.- 220 C.E.)

   Today the majority of the Chinese population (92%) is called Han or "sons of Han after this dynasty". Within the Han majority are many ethnic groups that speak 7 mutually unintelligible dialects such as Cantonese and Fujianese and maintain their own customs and traditions. Despite their differences these ethnic groups have been absorbed into the Han majority. A common written language and a strong central government, both created by the Qin and refined by the Han and later dynasties, are the ties that hold the Han majority together.

   Fifty-six ethnic groups, including the majority Han people, live in China. An ethnic group is recognized by the Chinese government as a group of people of common origin living in a common area, using a common language, and having a sense of group identity in economic and social organization and behavior. Non-Han ethnic groups are referred to as ethnic minorities but are considered Chinese citizens. Since 1949 ethnic minorities have been politically equal to the Han majority and are guaranteed special representation in the National People's Congress.

   The constitution prohibits discrimination against and oppression of any ethnicity. Historically this has not always been the case nor have the Han always dominated China's political and economic arenas. Twice, China was ruled by non-Han nationalities: The Yuan Dynasty (1206-1368) established by the Mongolians, and China's last dynasty, the Qing, ruled by the Manchus. The First Republic of China (1911) recognized the Han, Manchu, Mongolian, Hui (Muslim) and Tibetan people through its five colored flag. But persecution and forced assimilation into the majority way of life under the Guomindang (National People's Party 1928-1937) and during the Cultural Revolution (1966-1976) created tension between the Han and the ethnic minorities, some which still exist today. Through financial aid, material resources and exemptions to national policies like the "one child" policy for ethnic minority in urban areas, the government is working towards its goal of a "unified, multi-ethnic state" as declared in the constitution.
   




2. Is there any religion that was originated from China?

   Yes. China is the homeland of Taoism.
   
   Taoism refers to a variety of related philosophical and religious traditions and concepts. These traditions have influenced East Asia for over two thousand years and some have spread internationally. The Chinese character Tao (or Dao, depending on the romanisation scheme) means "path" or "way", although in Chinese religion and philosophy it has taken on more abstract meanings. Taoist propriety and ethics emphasize the Three Jewels of the Tao: compassion, moderation, and humility. Taoist thought focuses on wu wei (non-action), spontaneity, transformation and emptiness/omnipotence. An emphasis is placed on the link between people and nature, and that this link lessens the need for rules and order, leading one to a better understanding of the world and one's surroundings.
   
   Nature and ancestor spirits are common in popular Taoism. Organized Taoism distinguishes its ritual activity from that of the folk religion, which some professional Taoists (Daoshi) view as debased. This sort of shamanism is eschewed for an emphasis on internal alchemy among the "elite" Taoists.
   
   Chinese alchemy, astrology, cuisine, several Chinese martial arts, Chinese traditional medicine, fengshui, and many styles of qigong breath training disciplines are intertwined with Taoism throughout history.




3. What do religious Chinese people believe in nowadays?

   China is a country with a great diversity of religious beliefs. As the communication developed during the long history of China, Buddhism, Islam, Catholicism and Protestantism have become some main religion for modern Chinese people.

   • Buddhism has a history of 2,000 years in China. Currently China has 13,000-some Buddhist temples and about 200,000 Buddhist monks and nuns. Among them are 120,000 lamas and nuns, more than 1,700 Living Buddhas, and 3,000-some temples of Tibetan Buddhism and nearly 10,000 Bhiksus and senior monks and more than 1,600 temples of Pali Buddhism.
     
     
   • Islam was introduced into China in the seventh century. Nowadays in China there are ten national minorities, including the Hui and Uygur, with a total population of 18 million, whose faith is Islam. Their 30,000-odd mosques are served by 40,000 Imams and Akhunds.
     
     
   • Catholicism was introduced into China intermittently in the seventh century, but it had not spread widely until after the Opium War in 1840. At present, China has four million Catholics, 4,000 clergy and more than 4,600 churches and meeting houses.
     
     
   • Protestantism was first brought to China in the early 19th century and spread widely after the Opium War. There are about 10 million Protestants, more than 18,000 clergy, more than 12,000 churches and 25,000-some meeting places throughout China.
     
     
   China has the following national religious organizations: Buddhist Association of China, Taoist Association of China, Islamic Association of China, Chinese Patriotic Catholic Association, Chinese Catholic Bishops' College, Three-Self Patriotic Movement Committee of the Protestant Churches of China, and China Christian Council.
   In the course of the country's long history, the various religions in China have become part of the traditional Chinese thinking and culture. It is traditional for Chinese religious believers to love their country and religions. The Chinese government supports and encourages the religious circles to unite the religious believers to actively participate in the construction of the country.
   



4. What is the policy of China to Ethnic Groups?

   China is a united and multi-national country. China has 56 ethnic groups. Han people accounts for about 92 percent of the whole population and the rest of the people from other nationalities over 8 percent. During the long process of historical development, many people from various minority nationalities gradually get used to living in compact communities in areas mainly populated by Han people.
   
   A new policy towards the many ethnic groups of China is: all ethnic groups within the boundaries of the People's Republic of China are equal. They establish unity and mutual aid among themselves, and shall oppose imperialism and public enemies in their midst so that the People's Republic of China will become a big fraternal and cooperative family comprising all its ethnic groups. 'Greater nationalism' and 'local nationalism' should be opposed. Acts of discrimination, oppression and dividing the various nationalities should be prohibited.

   Many Ethnic Groups protected by this policy retain their own traits. Under this policy, many ethnic groups develop well in politics, economy, culture, and religion. Some influential ethnic groups such as: Yao Ethnic Group, Zhuang Ethnic Group, Miao Ethnic Group, Uygur Ethnic Group, Tibetan Ethnic Group, Dong Ethnic Group
   



5. What was the most powerful spiritual statement a person in ancient china could make

   Being empty was the highest spiritual to ancient Chinese people. Being empty doesn't refer to being mindless, nevertheless, when someone wouldn't think highly of material substance, he wouldn't care the existence of anything, because having equals not having, and vice versa. When one doesn't care anything's existence, he can concentrate on the process of his project and finally fulfill his personal achievement.

   Now you might ask: how can one achieve anything without the help of material substance. Well, materialism can be the very cause of failure. Caring too much about substance around you will distract you or lead you to a wrong way. There is a Chinese saying: there is always a way to climb up a mountain, which means, caring too much about substance is not necessary because everything you need will come to you eventually.
   
   



6. Why China is called one of the Four Great Ancient Civilizations?

   The history of China is told in traditional historical records that refer as far back as the Three Sovereigns and Five Emperors about 5,000 years ago, supplemented by archaeological records dating to the 16th century BC. China is one of the world's oldest continuous civilizations. Chinese civilization originated with city-states in the Yellow River valley. 221 BC is the commonly accepted year when China became unified under a large kingdom or empire. Successive dynasties in Chinese history developed bureaucratic systems that enabled the Emperor of China to control the large territory.
   
   With the development of the economy of China, China becomes very strong and affluent. Many areas form their own cultural environment. The customs, living style, economic conditions and so on is different from other areas. They form their special cultures. Some local culture are very famous and interesting, such as Shu Culture, Hakka Culture, Dongba Culture. While Lop Nur Culture exhibits to us the past ancient civilization of Lop Nur. Lop Nur Culture was a bright pearl on the ancient Silk Road.
   




7. How to understand the insight of Buddhism?

   Buddhism is one of five main religions existed in China. The essence of the Buddha's teachings is summed up in the Four Noble Truths of his first sermon. The Buddha's quest was to find a way beyond personal suffering, not through reliance on dogmas, creeds or philosophies but in actual experience based in insight. He ruthlessly exposed the nature of life realising that, due to impermanence and death, life can never be apart from suffering. This suffering arises primarily because we crave permanence, ego-enhancing credentials and safety: to go beyond suffering necessitates going beyond this craving, an endeavour that demands an examination of the self. The Buddha proclaimed: Life is suffering, Suffering is due to wanting, and especially wanting connected with the self, Suffering diminishes when this wanting is abandoned, the way how to do it.

   Chinese Zen, or Chan as it is called in China, is a way of life that encourages clarity of mind, compassion to all sentient beings and a wisdom that comes from going beyond the concerns of self. The famous Shaolin Temple is a Temple of Zen.



8. What determines an ethnic group?

   There are several aspects that determines whether one kind of people can form an ethnic group.

   • Distinct language: While hundreds of Chinese dialects are spoken across China, a minority language is not simply a dialect. Rather, it is a language with distinct grammatical and phonological differences from Chinese. Language families include Sino-Tibetan, Altaic, Indo-European, Austro-Asiatic, and Austronesian. Twenty-one ethnic minority groups have unique writing systems.
     
     
   • A Recognized Indigenous Homeland: A territory within the national boundaries of China, from which the group originated. Native history and mythologies are interwoven into this native land.
     
     
   • Distinctive Customs: Ranging from dress, marriage rituals, cuisine, religion, and so forth.
   
   
   • A Strong Sense of Identity: Feeling of relation with other members of the group, along with historically perceived friends and enemies among other groups.

9. Where did the names of ethnic groups come from?

   Many of the original Chinese names for minorities come from a long history of contempt. In 1951, the use of derogatory names was abolished, but the new, currently used names were set by Han Chinese. As the Communist Party has relaxed its iron grip in recent years, minorities have been given flexibility in choosing their own official names.